From the late 1990s, a range of image-based automated cell counters have been launched that provide precise data on cell number and viability. These counters essentially use a combination of image ...

Natural selection directly acts on the fitness of individuals in a population. The population constantly evolves by responding to the natural selection because the variance of fitness, to some degree, ...

Microbial bioreactors are widely used for wastewater treatment, and different reactor set-ups have been introduced to retain the microbial biomass while discharging cleaned water. The retention of ...